Characters used for Chinese composition remove duplicate heading?

The majority of the text used in Chinese composition consists of Han characters (hanzi).

Chinese characters include Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese alternatives. The former is commonly used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao while the latter is commonly used in Mainland China, Singapore and Malaysia. In this document, the number of strokes and the compositional nature of a character are considered to be the major differences between Simplified Chinese characters and Traditional Chinese characters.

Different typefaces are used different in regions. The presentational aspects of typefaces do not have a relationship to Unicode, but rather depend on the operating system and the character library. The focus of this document is Chinese composition and we will not discuss typeface presentation.

Chinese Characters

Chinese characters have square character frames of equal dimensions. Aligned with the vertical and horizontal center of the character frame, there is a smaller box called the letter face, which contains the actual symbol. (There should be some space left between the letter face and the frame). Most of the punctuation marks for Chinese characters share the same size as the other characters, however some of them differ, such as the ellipsis, which is one-character high and two-characters wide.

Character size is measured by the size of the character frame. Character advance is a term used to describe the advance width of the character frame of a character. The frame of a Chinese character should be a square.

Principles for Arranging Characters during Chinese Composition

In principle, when composing a line with Chinese characters, no extra space appears between their character frames. This is called solid setting.

Depending on the context, in addition to solid setting several alternative setting methods can be used, as described below.

中文排版經常使用的四種字體

Four Frequently-used Typefaces for Chinese Characters I'm inclined to think that a heading is superfluous here.

中文排版時，主要使用的四種字體為：

• 宋體（明體、明朝體）
• 黑體
• 楷體
• 仿宋體

這四種字體於書籍排版上有其常見之使用方式，下列各節分別敘述其使用情境。

There are four main typefaces in use for Chinese characters: Song, Hei, Kai and Fangsong (Imitation Song). This following sections describe common practice and contexts for use of these four typefaces.

宋體（明體、明朝體）

Song/Ming

宋體，又稱為明體或明朝體，是中文排版最常使用之字體。

Song, also known as Songti or Ming, is a category of typefaces used to display Chinese characters, and currently the most common style of type in print for Chinese. In Mainland China, the most common name is Song while in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and Korea, Ming is prevalent.

普遍使用於內文文字、標題與注釋。當應用於標題時，通常會特別加強字重，令其與內文有所差異。

Song is commonly used in text, headings and annotations. When used in headings, the characters will appear in a bold face, so as to distinguish the heading from the text.

楷體

Kai

楷體為帶有書法形態、手寫筆觸之字體。

Kai, also known as Kaiti or regular script, is another of the major typefaces, and provides calligraphic styles for Chinese characters. It is also the most easily and widely recognized style and shows notable handwriting features.

主要使用於標題、引言、摘句、對話、內容出處等，與內文有所不同的段落上。但因為與宋體近似，故少用於強調。

Kai is mainly used in text that needs to be differentiated from the rest of the content, for example, headlines, references, quotations, and dialogs. It is rarely used for emphasis, because of its similarity with Song.

黑體

Hei

Hei, also known as Heiti or Gothic, is a type style characterized by strokes of even thickness, reduced curves, and a lack of decoration. It is commonly used in headlines, signs, and personal names in dialogs. For certain types of text, characters in Kai style with thicker strokes typically indicate emphasis.

Traditional publications rarely apply the Hei style for content, but with the growing influence of the World Wide Web and the digital publishing industry, some publications are starting to experiment Hei in this context.

Fangsong (Imitation Song)

The Fangsong (Imitation Song) style lies between Song and Kai. It is commonly used in isolated paragraphs such as quotations or highlighted sentences.

Basic Elements of Page Format

The following are the basic elements of a page format.

• Trim size and binding side (vertically set Chinese documents are bound on the right-hand side, and horizontally set documents are bound on the left-hand side.)
• Principal text direction (vertical writing mode or horizontal writing mode).
• Appearance of the type area and its position relative to the trim size.
• Appearance of running heads and page numbers, and their positions relative to the trim size and type area.

Design of the Type Area

The type area defines the basic printing style of a book. The following are the basic elements of the type area.

• Character size and typeface name
• Text direction (vertical writing mode or horizontal writing mode)
• Number of columns and column gap when using multi-column format
• Length of a line
• Number of lines per page (number of lines per column when using multi-column format)
• Line gap

Type Area and Real Page Format

This section explains how to create a real page format based on the type area.

1. Realm and position of headings: The direction and size of the characters of the heading should be based on a number of lines in the type area. The size of the indent is usually specified as a number of characters in the type area.
2. Size of illustrations: In horizontal writing mode, the width of illustrations should, if at all possible, be the width of the type area; in horizontal writing mode with two columns, the width of illustrations should, if at all possible, be the width of one type area column. The illustrations are usually set at the head or the foot of the page. Likewise, in vertical writing mode, the height of illustrations should, if at all possible, be either the height of one type area column or the height of the type area. The illustrations are usually set at the right side or left side of the type area.
3. Page for Table of Contents, Indexes and References: The size of the type area for the table of contents, indexes and references of books is based on the size of the type area for the main body content. There are many examples of tables of contents in vertical writing mode where the left-to-right size is identical to that of the type area, but the top-to-bottom size is a little bit smaller.

Procedure for Defining the Type Area

1. Specifying the dimensions of the type area

   1. For a document with a single column per page, specify the character size, the line length (the number of characters per line), the number of lines per page, and the line gap.
   2. For a document with multiple columns per page, specify the character size, the line length (the number of characters per line), the number of lines per column, the line-gap, the number of columns and the column gap.

2. Determining the position of the type area relative to the trim size. There are various alternative methods for specifying the position of the type area relative to the trim size:

   1. Set the type area at the horizontal and vertical center of the trim size.
   2. Position vertically by specifying the size of the space at the head (for horizontal writing mode) or the space at the foot (for vertical writing mode). Position horizontally by centering the type area.
   3. Position vertically by centering the type area. Position horizontally by specifying the size of the space for the gutter.
   4. Position vertically by specifying the space at the head (for horizontal writing mode) or the space at the foot (for vertical writing mode). Position horizontally by specifying the size of the space for the gutter.

Considerations when Designing the Type Area

The following are considerations that need to be taken into account when designing the type area:

1. When deciding the dimensions of the type area, it is necessary to consider both the trim size and the margin. Generally speaking, the shape of the type area could be made similar to that of the trim size.

2. Character size. For the main target audience of publications, ie. the adult population, most commonly the character size is 10.5pt (≒3.7mm) or 9pt (≒3.2mm). The minimum acceptable size of type is 8pt (≒2.8mm), except for specialized publications.

   There are two traditional size systems for Chinese characters, and old one and a new one. The following shows the equivalence in the Western point system. In the Old size system, Size 0 = 42pt, Size 1 = 27.5pt, Size 2 = 21pt, Size 3 = 15.75pt, Size 4 = 13.75pt, Size 5 = 10.5pt, Size 6 = 7.875pt, and Size 7 = 5.25pt; while 4 lines of New Size 5 is 36ptdon't understand the foregoing, New Size 1 = 24pt, New Size 2 = 18pt, New Size 3 = 16pt, New Size 4 = 12pt, New Size 5 is 9pt.

   Size 5 is usually used for text content. Newspapers and magazines use both Size 5 and New Size 5. The acceptable minimal size for the text in content is Size 6 (7.875pt≒2.8mm). If a smaller size is used, it will be difficult to read due to the complex structure of the Chinese characters.

3. Line length should be multiples of the character size and each line should be in alignment with each other.

   For Chinese composition without intermixed Western scripts, the characters all have a square-shaped frame, so all line lengths except that of the last line of the paragraph should, in principle, be the same.

4. The line gaps between each line should be the same throughout the book, except for special cases. It would probably help, at this point, to define what the line gap is, since it initially sounds like the same thing as line height. What are the reference points for measuring the line gap?

   In Traditional Chinese composition, there are cases where pronunciation marks, referred to as 'ruby' in the Japanese Layout Requirements, are inserted between lines. In such cases the line gap is not changed but is kept constant . If these elements are likely to occur in text, the line gap established during the type area design needs to be of an adequate size to accommodate them.

   The line gap for the type area is commonly set to a value between 50% and 100% of the height of the character frame used for the type area. A shorter line gap can be chosen in cases where the line length is short or the character size of the type area is relatively small. On the other hand, the line gap usually does not exceed the character size. Increasing the line gap beyond the character size does not improve the reading experience.

   There is another method of specifying the type area that uses line height rather than line gaps. Line height is the distance between two adjacent lines measured from their reference points. The reference point differs from implementation to implementation, however, in vertical writing mode the horizontal center of the character frame is usually used, and with horizontal writing mode, the vertical center of the character frame is used. When the character size is the same for every character, the following calculation is used:

   • line height = character size / 2 + line gap + character size / 2 = character size + line gap
   • line gap = line height - character size

中文的文字書寫方向

中文的文字書寫方向，分為直排與橫排。其中，繁體中文出版品適用直排與橫排；簡體中文出版品則多為橫排，直排書籍的案例極少。

橫排與直排的主要差異點

直排與橫排的主要差異點，列舉如下：

1. 文字、行、欄以及頁面配置、裝訂方向
   1. 直排時
      • 文字由上而下，行由右而左排列。
      • 欄水平切割，上下分欄。
      • 頁面由封面開始，由右向左進行配置（由左向右翻頁）。
   2. 橫排時
      • 文字由左而右，行由上而下排列。

        中文傳統上僅使用直排，當文字需要橫向排列時，採用每行一字、由右向左的規則，且不分欄，形成視覺上由右向左的橫排，此為直排的特例。過去常見於匾額、報紙、雜誌的標題，目前多為由左而右的橫排書寫方向取代。

      • 欄垂直切割，左右分欄。
      • 頁面由封面開始，由左而右進行配置（由右向左翻頁）。
2. 文中包含西文、阿拉伯數字時，如下配置：
   1. 直排時，西文或阿拉伯數字有以下三種配置方式：
      • 與漢字採相同的書寫方向，依字母字字排列，主要用於單一西文字母或阿拉伯數字、首字母縮寫等。

        西文字母或阿拉伯數字，採用此配置時，需使用與漢字相同尺寸、字幅固定的等寬字體，而非比例字體。

      • 文字以順時鐘方向旋轉90度。主要用於西文的單字詞、語句等。
      • 保持正常方向，橫排處理（如日文的縱中橫排）。主要應用於二至三位數字。

        數字於直排行內橫排，原則上不超過一個漢字的字幅。這是從活字印刷時代起，每行寬度固定所致。故直排時，西文字母與阿拉伯數字橫排不限於二位數，但原則上不能超過一個漢字。現代常見的用法還包括[3.0]、[A+]、[2B]等。

   2. 橫排時，以正常方向配置。
3. 表格、圖片等標題列的位置
   1. 直排時，表格橫列之標題列為上方，但直行之標題列位於右側。
   2. 橫排時，表格橫列之標題列為上方，但直行之標題列位於左側。
4. 換頁、換章時最末頁採多欄排列、行於頁面中結束時，依以下方式處理：
   1. 直排時，順其行文結束，各欄左右行數可以不一致。
   2. 橫排時，各欄的行數需平均。但因字數不足，行數無法與欄數配合時，不足的行數於最後一欄末尾留空。

   中文書籍無論直、橫排大多不分欄，這項處理多來自翻譯書籍或參考日文書籍之排版方式，故承襲日文排版需求。

Categories and Usage of Punctuation Marks

Sizes and positions of Punctuation Marks

Please find the shape and usage of punctuation marks at section and . There are no notable differences between the punctuation used in Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese. The major differences between the two are in the dimension and position of the punctuation marks.

Punctuation marks used in Traditional Chinese are usually positioned in the vertical and horizontal center of the square space left for them; while in vertical writing mode and horizontal writing mode, some of the punctuation marks are positioned in different directions so as to mark the corresponding characters more accurately. For Simplified Chinese, the punctuation marks are usually positioned following the characters they are supposed to mark; while some punctuation marks might be positioned in different directions due to the vertical or horizontal writing mode. Also, different writing modes might require different punctuation marks to fulfill the same function, e.g. horizontal writing mode requires curved quotation marks while vertical writing mode requires angle brackets.

Pause or stop punctuation marks include the slight-pause comma, comma, semicolon, colon, period, question mark, exclamation mark, etc. In Traditional Chinese, they take the same dimensions as well as the direction as a character does. Traditional Chinese pause or stop punctuation marks are usually positioned in the vertical and horizontal center of the square space left for them. In Simplified Chinese, they are positioned in the top or bottom side in the space left for them following the marked characters. In horizontal writing mode, the pause or stop punctuation marks are placed at the lower left corner in the square space while in vertical writing mode, they are placed in the right upper corner.

Brackets marks include quotation marks, parentheses, title marks, etc. They should be positioned in pairs at each side of the marked character and have the same dimensions as a character, and the same direction as the characters. Bracket quotation marks have different positioning rules in Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese. In Traditional Chinese, single quotation marks will be used first and then double quotation marks, whereas in Simplified Chinese, double quotation marks will be used first and then single quotation marks. Also, the writing mode should be taken into consideration too. Horizontal writing mode requires curved quotation marks while vertical writing mode requires angle brackets.

Ellipsis and long dash, in the vertical and horizontal center of the square space for them, should be one character in height and two-characters in width. They are not supposed to be separated from one line to the next and should be positioned in the same direction as the characters.

Dashes, with the same dimensions as one character, should be positioned in the vertical and horizontal center of the square space for it. Among the dash marks, EN DASH should have a short length to make a clear distinction from the Chinese character [一], which means one. And they should be positioned in the same direction as the characters they mark.

Solidus, with the same dimensions and direction as the character it follows, should be positioned in the vertical and horizontal center of the square space for it. To make a more economical use of the space, or to set the members or characters more solid, sometimes the solidus can have a half character width.

Inline marks like title marks, wavy low lines, and emphasis dots should be positioned underneath the marked characters in horizontal writing mode. In vertical writing mode, emphasis dots should be positioned to the right side of the marked characters so as not to affect the characters above and beneath them.

Solidus should be positioned in the vertical and horizontal center of the square space for it. In Simplified Chinese, it should take half a character width, whereas in Traditional Chinese, there is no clear rule about its dimension but most publications will give them the same dimensions as one character.

Atypical punctuation marks and their composition

Prohibition Rules for Line Start and Line End

In order to maintain a smooth reading experience and consistency of the style, there are certain constraints for the positioning of most punctuation marks. In most cases, according to its function, a punctuation mark is prohibited from appearing at the line start or line end. This rule was first implemented during the time of letterpress printing. In Mainland China, the national standard General Rules for Punctuation (GB/T 15834–2011) sets clear rules about the positioning of punctuation marks. In the regions that use Traditional Chinese, there is not yet a standard for the usage and positioning of punctuation marks, but most of the publications apply the rules described in this document.

Pause or stop punctuation marks including slight-pause comma, comma, semicolon, colon, period, question mark, exclamation mark, as well as right quotation marks, right parentheses, right angle brackets, ellipsis, dash, etc, should not appear at the line start.

Left parentheses, left quotation marks, left angle brackets and left title marks should not appear at the line end.

Prohibition Rules for Unbreakable Marks

Compression Rules for Punctuation Marks

The punctuation marks in Chinese usually have the dimensions of one character (or more), will provides a clear distinction between characters and leaves some room for composition adjustment. However, if there is no character before or after the punctuation mark(s), the empty space around the punctuation mark(s) will seem a bit abrupt. In this case, proper compression for the punctuation mark(s) will make the composition more tightly-knit and readable.

Usually there are two ways to compress punctuation mark(s). First, when multiple punctuation marks appear together, the space between the punctuation marks can be adjusted; second, when multiple punctuation marks appear at the line start or line end, the space at the line start or line end can be adjusted.

Hanging Punctuation at Line End

Most Chinese publications do not use hanging punctuation at line end. According to the Japanese Layout Requirements document, hanging punctuation at the line end is a kind of extension of the prohibition rules at line start. This rule helps to avoid moving characters or punctuation marks between lines and avoids inconsistency of space between the characters in different lines.

In general, the punctuation marks that can be hung at the line end include slight-pause comma, comma and period. In Simplified Chinese, the rest of the pause or stop punctuation marks can be hung at line end since they are set at at the side of the marked characters or in front of the marked characters.

However, for Traditional Chinese, which sets the punctuation marks at the center of the square space for it, hanging the punctuation marks might make an abrupt affect on the composition. Therefore, Traditional Chinese does not apply hanging punctuation in horizontal writing mode but only in vertical writing mode.

In the case of a succession of punctuation marks, punctuation hanging should not be applied.

Composition of Chinese and Western Mixed Text

There are many examples in Chinese text where Western characters, such as Latin letters, Greek letters, or European numerals, are found alongside Han characters. The following are just a few examples:

1. One Western letter used as a symbol for something, such as 'A' or 'B'.
2. A Western word is used in a Chinese context, such as 'editor'.
3. Acronyms, such as 'DTP' or 'GDP'.
4. Book titles or authors in references to Western books that use the original spelling.
5. European numerals used to express years or other numbers, such as '1999年'.

Western numeric characters are also used in itemized lists and numbered headings, or as symbols for chemical elements or mathematical formulae. It can be seen from these examples that it is an everyday occurrence to find Western characters mixed with Han characters in Chinese composition.

Formerly, fullwidth ASCII characters were often used, either to make the presentation look orderly, or simply due to the poorly developed computer technologies available for text layout. Nowadays, typesetting engines allow for proportional or monospace fonts, as required, rather than forcing the user to resort to the old fullwidth blocks of Latin letters and European numerals.

When Western texts are mixed with Han characters, Chinese style punctuation and its common usage should be used in principle since the main text is Chinese, However, in the case of technical documents, if plenty of formula are contained in the text, the full stop can be unified with the western-style period, U+002E FULL STOP [.]. Also in text books on grammar of Western languages etc., which contain plenty of example sentences mixed with Chinese, western-style periods can be used.

Mixed Text Composition in Horizontal Writing Mode

In horizontal writing mode, the basic approach uses proportional fonts to represent Western text and uses proportional or monospace fonts for European numerals. In principle, there is tracking or spacing between an adjacent Han character and Western character of up to one quarter of a Han character width, except at the line head or end.

Mixed Text Composition in Vertical Writing Mode

For vertical writing mode, the following list describes methods of setting Western letters and European numerals:

1. Setting Western letters with Han character-width monospace fonts. Letters or European numerals follow each other, one at a time, in the same direction and rotation as the Han characters. This arrangement is usually adopted where the text contains a single letter or digit, or an acronym.
2. Setting Western letters with proportional fonts, rotated 90 degrees clockwise. This approach is usually adopted where Latin letters compose a word or sentence. There is tracking or spacing between a Han character and an adjacent Western letter or European numeral, up to a width of one quarter of a Han character, except at the line head or end.
3. Setting European numerals with proportional fonts in horizontal-in-vertical orientation. This style is usually adopted when dealing with a two to three digit number whose width is equal to the default line advance or slightly wider (within an acceptable range).

Handling Western Text in Chinese Text Using Proportional Western Fonts

The following provides composition rules for handling Western characters and European numerals in horizontal writing mode or in situations in vertical writing mode where the Western words/phrases or European numerals are rotated 90 degrees clockwise:

1. A sequence of Western characters in a Western word should not break across a line-break, except where hyphenation is allowed.
2. Tracking or spacing between a Han character and a Western letter or numeral is up to a quarter of the width of a Han character.
3. Justified text alignment is an important feature of Chinese composition. It is harder to align text as expected when a line contains Western characters. Typically, spacing or tracking is applied equally across the line, but such adjustments are only applied between Han characters or between Han and Western letters. The spacing is not equally distributed between characters in Western words and/or European numerals.

Exceptions are made in the following cases:

1. Tracking or spacing of Western letters or European numerals before the line head or after the line end are not justified.
2. Tracking or spacing of Western letters or European numerals is not adjusted before or after Chinese commas or full stops, nor after Chinese opening and before Chinese closing brackets.

Handling of Grid Alignment in Chinese and Western Mixed Text Composition

Due to the fact that each Han character is of the same width, not only should characters at the start and end of a line be aligned but it is also a requirement for characters within blocks of Han text to be aligned both vertically and horizontally, whether in vertical or horizontal writing mode. When Western text or European numerals intervene, this principle is harder to achieve. Possible approaches are listed below:

1. Instead of a quarter Han-width tracking between Han and Western letters, it is possible to use flexible spacing of up to half a Han character width. This brings the space occupied by Western characters to a multiple of the width of a Han character. In this way, both the Han character before and after the Western language span snaps to the grid lines.
2. When a Western word appears at the line end and needs to be broken, rather than breaking the word at a syllable boundary per the Western convention, the word may be forced to break at the line end, in order to ensure correct alignment.

Usage of Interlinear Annotations

Chinese interlinear annotation, also known as ruby, is small, supplementary text attached to certain characters or words in the main text. Chinese interlinear annotation is usually set in the interlinear space and aligned to the corresponding base text which it annotates. In Chinese typesetting, Chinese interlinear annotation is mainly used to indicate pronunciation or meaning.

Overview of Interlinear Annotation Positioning

In vertical writing mode, Zhuyin, Romanization or bilingual annotations are usually placed on the right side of the base text (Han characters), while interlinear comments are often placed on the left side.

In horizontal writing mode, Zhuyin can be placed above the base text, but in most cases they are still set to the right side of the base text. On the other hand, Romanization and bilingual annotations can appear both above or below the base text, and the interlinear comments are usually placed at the bottom of the base text.

In principle, Zhuyin Phonetic Symbols are of the same size, and the number of Zhuyin symbols for one Han character is never more than three, which is quite easily manageable. Romanization, however, uses Latin letters whose sizes are proportional, their composed lengths are varied and there should be spaces between the words. Thus, these two kinds of phonetic annotations differ greatly in positioning.

Annotating with both Romanization and Zhuyin is a practical way to indicate the reading to readers who know only one of these systems, as well as helping study of or enquiries about the other one. Normally, when Romanization and Zhuyin are both provided, the Zhuyin are placed on the right side of the Han character while Romanization is set at the bottom of the Han character in horizontal writing mode and to the left side in vertical writing mode.

Positioning of Zhuyin Interlinear Annotations

Positioning of Romanized Interlinear Annotations

Atypical Cases for Han character Phonetic Annotations

Positioning of Bilingual Annotations

Typesetting of bilingual annotations is actually quite similar to that of Romanization. Annotations are usually placed to the right of the base text in vertical writing mode, or above the base text in horizontal writing mode.

Positioning of Interlinear Comments

Interlinear comments can have very varied layouts and lengths. They are usually placed at the foot side of the annotated text — to the left side of the base text in vertical writing mode or below the base text in horizontal writing mode. Sometimes the interlinear comments are in other colors to help the reader tell the difference from the body text .

Interlinear comments are also used to explain the context and details of a longer text fragment. In such cases, due to the ambiguity of the base text, the annotation can find a suitable place as an anchor and flow down. There's no strict requirement for its length, and sometimes it can be longer than one line.

Other Parts of This Draft This section appears to have been removed from the Chinese version. Should we remove it from here?

Line Head Indent at the Beginning of Paragraphs

A paragraph, a section of a document which consists of one or more sentences to indicate a distinct idea, usually begins on a new line. For the related line head indent at the beginning of paragraphs, the following methods are available.

1. Line head indent at the beginning of a paragraph is applied to all paragraphs. Nearly all books and magazines make use of this method.
2. Line head indent does not apply to the first paragraph but to the rest of the paragraphs. This method is mostly seen in Western publications.
3. Line head indent at the beginning of a paragraph is not applied for any paragraph at all. A certain amount of space is inserted between the paragraphs so as to indicate the distinction of different paragraphs. In some books and magazines this method is applied.
4. In principle, some unfinished paragraphs should be broken rather than apply the line head indent for the following paragraph. Dialogs, quotations or subtitles that the editor inserted might appear before the unfinished paragraph.

原則上，在中文書籍排版中各段落間不使用間距，前段落末行、後段落首行與段落內行距一致。若段落間加入空白行，則表示一節的結束。但段落首行不縮排時所加入的段落間距則與傳統排版有所差異，不適合加入空行做節的區分，避免過多的留空造成體裁不良。

除縮排外，也有首行不縮排、次行起至末行縮排的狀況，稱為凸排。例如劇本中的對白，首行以人名開頭不縮排，第二行起縮排。編號列表、問答、法律條文等也使用此種方式處理。雖稱為凸排，但首行開始處不超過版心所設定的範圍。

凸排時，次行起縮排通常為固定量的空白，例如人名三字加冒號共四字，凡遇對話時次行皆縮排四個全型空白。遇人名少於三字時，則於姓與名間加入空白，以保持體例一致。

Paragraph Indent

The paragraph indent is the indentation of the line head by a fixed amount, starting from the line head side of the type area (in the case of one column) or of the column area (in the case of several columns).This method is usually applied for quotations, poetry or subtitles in a paragraph or between the paragraphs.

Line Alignment Processing

Line alignment method is a process for setting the alignment of each line of text so that the actual position of the text can be matched with their preset position. The following methods are available.

1. Centering

   The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. If there is not solid setting but a fixed space between characters, this is used; the amount of space at the line head and line end is made equal, and the center of the character sequence is unified with the center of the line.

2. Line head alignment

   The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. If there is not solid setting but a fixed space between characters, this is used; the start of the character sequence is unified with the line head, and if the line is not full, the line end is kept empty.

3. Line end alignment

   The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. If there is not solid setting but a fixed space between characters, this is used; the end of the character sequence is unified with the line end, and if the line is not full, the line head is kept empty.

4. Even inter-character spacing

   The space between adjacent characters is, in principle, set solid. Also, if there is an explicit instruction to insert spaces, such spaces are inserted. In addition, using the space made available during line adjustment processing, equal character spacing is applied where possible. The start of the character sequence is aligned to the position of the line head, and the end of the character sequence to the position of the line end.

   Two use cases for even inter-character spacing:

   1. A frequently seen case of even inter-character spacing is that, after applying the punctuation prohibition rules to each line, some lines will have more than one character space left, so in order to align the beginning and ending with the rest of the lines, this line should apply even inter-character spacing.
   2. Even inter-character spacing is often used for listing names of people or objects. The last line of a paragraph or a paragraph with only one line can have even inter-character spacing applied as well.

Handling of Widows and Orphans

In the tradition of Chinese composition, an orphan does not make a line, nor does a widow make a page. The principles are as described below.

1. If there is only one character or one character with a punctuation mark left in the last line of a paragraph, this character is called an orphan. An orphan can be processed using the following methods, so that more than two characters can be positioned in the last line of a paragraph.

   1. Similar to the handling for the prohibition rule that a punctuation marks should not appear at the line start, the last character of the previous line can be moved the next line, and the previous line should apply even inter-character spacing.
   2. Delete some character(s) of the previous paragraph so that there will be enough space to move the orphan to the previous line.
   3. Adding more characters to the last line.

   The definition of orphan in Chinese typesetting has some similarity with the definition of orphan in Latin typesetting. See more content in section 5.2 of Requirements for Latin Text Layout and Pagination.

2. If the first line of a paragraph in a page is the last line of a paragraph from the previous page, it is called a widow. A widow can be handled via the following methods.

   1. Move the widow line to the previous page and it can go beyond the tape area.
   2. Move the last line of the previous page to join the widow.
   3. Delete some characters of the paragraph so that there will be enough space for the widow to be moved to the previous page.
   4. Add more characters to the widow so that there will be more than two lines on the page.

   The definition of widow in Chinese typesetting has some similarity with the definition of widow in Latin typesetting. See more content at session 5.1 of Requirements for Latin Text Layout and Pagination.

Orphans and widows might differ in the cases below:

1. There is only one line in a page and the line consists of one character and a punctuation mark, which makes the text an orphan and widow at the same time.
2. There are multiple paragraphs in a page but the first line is a widow and the first line consists of one character and a punctuation mark, which makes the orphan and widow appear together.
3. There is only one line in a page, which makes the line a widow.
4. There are multiple paragraphs in a page but the first line is a widow.
5. There are multiple paragraphs in a page but one of the lines consists of one character only, which make the only character an orphan.

There are different viewpoints about how the orphans and widows should be handled in the cases above due to differences between publishers. Case (a) and case (b) have a bigger affect on the typesetting while case (c) affects it less. Cases (d) and (e) are seem more rarely.

Types of Headings

In terms of text composition, there are three types of headings.

• Whole-page headings
• Block headings
• Run-in headings

Whole page headings are used when there is a need to separate sections in a book, usually on a separate page with the following page left blank. Sometimes subheadings, selected sentences, names of the authors or selected paragraphs will also appear with the heading. The back side of the whole page heading page is not necessarily always blank, for example,consider the Han-tobira in Japanese books, whose following even page is not blank, and is used for the main text.

A block heading is the heading occupying a whole, independent line. The main text is set from the very next line. Top level headings and medium level headings are of this type.

A run-in heading is a heading immediately followed by main text without a line break, and is usually used as a low level heading. Note that a low level heading can also appear as a block heading.

Font Selection and Heading Font Size

標題主要是為了呈現階層結構，所以需要以特別的表現體裁來顯示其階層。標題的表現體裁包含以下幾種方式：

1. Character size for the heading: The character size of headings should be selected as appropriate in accordance with the level of headings. For example, when the character size of main text is 9 point, the small-headings are usually set with 10 points, medium-headings are usually set with 12 points and large-headings are usually set with 14 points. The character size of headings is usually larger than main text, and the character size of higher level headings are larger than the size of smaller size headings.

   也有採用將本文文字尺寸依照比例放大的方式，使用這方式時，以10%–20%上下，依階層放大為佳。

2. Type faces for headings: Both Hei or bold Song are usually used. Other type face designs like Yuan and Kai are sometimes used as well.

   活版印刷使用作為標題的宋體字，其活字設計時都會因為供標題使用而字重偏重。但使用數位字體時由於是採內文字設計，放大字級後顯得過輕，幾乎都會加重字重為粗體。

   使用黑體作為小標時，也都會加重字重，令標題凸顯。

3. Alignment of headings (inline direction): In the case of horizontal writing mode, large-headings and medium-headings are in most cases centre-aligned. In the case of vertical writing mode, headings are usually aligned to the line head with some indent.

   The number of characters of line head indent for a heading depends on the heading level. If the heading level is higher, the indent character number is less, if the heading level is lower, the number of indent characters is more. The character size is based on the main text of the type area. The differences of character numbers are usually around two characters.

4. Whether to decorate with solid lines, or give a symbol on the top of the heading.

How to Handle Headings with New Recto and Page Break

A large heading sometimes starts with a new page following a page break, to clarify the separation between sections, in which case the process below should be followed:

1. Always begin with odd pages, i.e. new recto.

   Books usually begin with page 1. Accordingly, vertical writing mode and books bound on the right-hand side begin with a left page, horizontal writing mode and books bound on the left-hand side begin with a right page after a new recto.

2. Always begin with new pages, regardless of even pages or odd pages, i.e. page breaking. Used for large-heading.
3. When medium-headings or small-headings appear at the last line of a page and there is no space left for the following paragraphs, the medium-headings or small-headings should be moved to the next page so as to make a proper composition.

Handling of Spaces just before the New Recto, Page Breaks and New Edges

Spaces just before new rectos, page breaks and new columns are treated as follows (the last pages are treated as the same):

1. In the case of single column typesetting, the spaces just before the new rectos and page breaks are left as they are.
2. In the case of multiple columns, the remaining space of preceding columns is left as it is.
3. In the case of vertical writing mode, columns are filled with text lines from upper right to lower left. There is no need to align line numbers of the upper column and lower column, and remaining spaces are left as they are.
4. In horizontal writing mode and multi-column format, the number of lines for each column is set to be the same, but where the result of the total number of lines divided by the column number chosen for the type area results in an odd number, the last column may have a smaller number of lines and may be followed by blank space.

Processing of Run-in Headings

Run-in headings are usually used for low level headings. The following are some examples of run-in headings. Inter-character space between the run-in heading and following main text is usually a one character space of the base character size decided for the type area. Note that the run-in heading may be set at the last line of the page, or of the column in multi column style.

1. The run-in heading is set with the same character size as the main text and with Hei or Song.
2. Set the run-in heading with one level smaller character size than the main text and use Hei or Song.

   The space that the run-in headings take is not an integer times larger than the characters in the body content, and the space between the run-in headings and body content can be adjusted so as to align the body content as well as the line start and line end.

3. Set the run-in heading with the same character size and type-face as the main text. Note that heading numbers or Western characters are added in front of the heading.